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Landscape Architecture

Research

This section of the Landscape Architecture web site showcases abstracts, publications, and papers that represent the research and scholarly interests of the department's faculty.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2012

Medieval Town Making and Sustainability: A Return to the Center

For decades, planners and designers have looked to traditional town-making as a model for sustainable development in planning new or retrofitting existing communities. Attributes of traditional towns developed before the advent of automotive travel include compact development, a mixture of land uses, multiple modes of transportation, and street networks that are scaled for humans. These qualities are of particular interest in that they are believed to contribute to more livable communities and promote less of a reliance on single-occupant automobile travel at the exclusion of all other modes (Cervero & Radisch, 1996).

This study aims to expand upon the understanding of traditional town-making practices by examining historic medieval Dutch towns which have been successful at retaining the scale and character of livable communities while limiting intrusions of automobile travel (Pressman, 1987). The Dutch report the lowest level of sedentarism in Europe in part due to travel choices that are more centered on walking and biking. Indeed it is in highly urbanized ares of the Netherlands that walking and bicycling present themselves as a significant method of mobility (Racioppi et al, 2005). What elements in Dutch town making, both historical and current, have contributed to these choices? This paper examines historic Dutch town-making methods along with past and current transportation and land use policy to determine what efforts have most contributed to this condition of higher than normal uses of alternative transportation modes among it’s populace. Dutch water towns, settlements that were created during the middle ages upon reclaimed marshes and water bodies, form the focus of this examination in that these towns show a higher level of planning and care at their inception when compared to other medieval towns from the same era (Burke, 1956. Gutkind, 1971). These findings may be useful in the planning of new communities or retrofit of existing communities that promote more sustainable, livable communities.

References:

Burke, F. (1956). The Making of Dutch Towns. London: Cleaver-Hume Press.

Cervero, R. & Radisch, C. (1996). Travel Choices in Pedestrian versus Automobile Oriented Neighborhoods. Transport Policy, 3(3), 127-141.

Gutkind, E. (1971). Urban Development in Western Europe: The Netherlands and Great Britain, Volume VI. New York: The Free Press.
Pressman, N. (1987). The European Experience. In A. V. Moudon, (Ed), Public Streets for Public Use. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.

Racioppi, F., Dora, C., & Rutter, H. (2005). Urban Settings and opportunities for healthy lifestyles: Rediscovering walking and cycling and understanding their health benefits. Built Environment, 31(4), 302-14.

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor Beverly Bass.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2012

Re-Situating Landscape Architecture for the 21st Century: How Economic Downturns have Provided Opportunities for Landscape Architecture to Find New Direction

A historical analysis of American landscape architecture reveals sporadic high points of creativity rather than a study climb, a common trajectory in the arts. In a critical review of the past 130 years, innovation in the field often followed an economic recession or depression. In this essay, an historic overview provides the framework for comparing past economic conditions and the influence of landscape architecture during that period with current economic conditions, proposing how landscape architecture can take advantage of the recession to re-envision the field in a fresh approach and direction in the 21st century.

Significant economic crises in the United States over the past 130 years include the Panic of 1893; the Great Depression initially in 1920 and continuing through the 1930s; the Carter Administration era of 1973 – 75; the early 1980s recession; and the current economic crisis. Design tends to thrive in economically hard times. During downturns, designers shift from consumer driven design to more pressing needs of infrastructure, housing, city planning, transit and energy (Cannell, 2009). After the Panic of 1893, for example, the City Beautiful Movement flourished and the ASLA was founded. Political backing through WPA programs during the 1930s provided unusually collaborative design and opportunity, followed by the first modern revolution in landscape architecture by visionaries Eckbo, Kiley and Rose. The historical reasons behind the economic crisis are not necessarily drivers of the artistic expression in landscape architecture. Rather the downturn appears to provide a period of contemplation and re-situating that provides auspicious momentum when the economy begins to thrive.

The current recession has opportunities for landscape architecture to evolve once again. With a visionary at the helm and political backing, landscape architecture has the opportunity to immerse itself into solving problems of great complexity for which practitioners are trained, and showcase a new sense of relevance outside the profession.

References:

Cannell, M. (2009, January 3). Design Loves a Depression. New York Times .

Corner, J. (1999). Recovering Landscape. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

Cutler, P. (1985). The Public Landscape of the New Deal. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Kambic, J. L. (2008/2009). Massive change required: Nine Axioms for the Future of Landscape Architecture. Kerb Journal of Landscape Architecture , 17, 105-109.

Peterson, J. A. (1996). Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.: The Visionary and the Professional. In M. C. Silver, Planning the Twentieth Century American City (pp. 37-54). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor Christine Edstrom O'Hara.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2012

Construction Documents: A Crossroads of Misunderstanding

The methodology with which landscape architects communicate their design ideas to clients has embraced new technology at every turn. Virtual tours, three dimensional vignettes, and literal graphic renderings allow clients to step into our designs, and experience the space. The opposite is true of communications to general and landscape contractors as they attempt to interpret and execute the design intent conveyed to the client. There has been little advancement in communication techniques since the days of Humphry Repton riding on horseback and throwing potato pieces to identify where trees were to be planted. Two dimensional drawings, schedules, details, and written specifications remain the primary tools utilized to transform an idea into reality. The shortcomings of this approach to clearly and fully communicate the design are seen in almost every project with the issuance of addendum and change orders. Clients incur additional costs, projects are delayed, and business relationships can become strained.

The proposed study seeks to explore the underlying factors that contribute to the reliance on current construction documents and inhibit exploration of alternative communication techniques through case studies, interviews, and surveys of landscape architects and contractors. The study will look for recurring themes and patterns of miscommunication. It will also seek to identify internal and external influences to the process from both perspectives. Possible external factors include legal, financial, and contractual concerns. Factors inherent to the process itself could include our design culture, document preparation techniques, and budget constraints. It is perceived that technology and software availability could be a shared contributing factor impacting communications. The study will go on to examine alternative forms of communication, primarily the introduction of technology new to the landscape architect/contractor relationship, and the viability of their integration into the process. This would include, but not be limited to project modeling techniques, videos, and realistic graphic renderings.

This study is significant in that it highlights and explores a possible deficiency, or at least an antiquated approach, within our procedural theory base. We have found and employed new ways to communicate our ideas to the client and the public. This has not kept pace with our next most important audience, the people who are responsible for making our ideas a reality. Clearer communication of design intent at the start of the project will elevate a project’s sustainability through reduced waste of re-doing work that has already been completed.

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor David J. Watts.

Abstract: Erasing Boundaries: Service Learning in Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Planning Symposium 2011

Farms to Schools: Healthier Communities through Service Learning

Section One: Background

There is a national conversation going on about the need for healthier communities, for conquering childhood obesity, assuring food justice and planning for food security. How do Landscape Architects contribute their skills and activate their students in this conversation at the local level? One key to aligning education with local community building involves the commitment of faculty to participate outside the academy in local non-profit and public organizations. The Planning Department of San Luis Obispo, CA asked for ideas for the use of a city-owned 25-acre parcel of land that would benefit the community and serve as a reminder of the City's agricultural roots. This provided a unique opportunity for Cal Poly students to partner with local planners, educators and farmers. Through programming, students demonstrated critical thinking by adding a working organic farm, education center and food-processing hub to the site. The organizing structure of this project will provide fresh food for Farm to School Programs and the local Food Bank. A non-profit will manage the facility for the City. Students at Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo, CA designed the site and presented it to the community. It is currently on the City Council's agenda for approval in mid 2011.

Section Two: Course Objectives

Activate critical thinking about the issues of regional food systems and the cultural/agricultural vernacular by linking the following three ideas:

Connect students with local farmers, nutritionists, chefs, schools, non-profits and government officials.

Initiate a relationship between the College of Agriculture Center for Sustainability and the Landscape Architecture Department through service learning projects.

Section Three: Methods/Approach

To formulate new patterns of learning, two faculty members teaching 3rd and 4th year students combined two courses in one studio space. Students in both a Design Implementation Focus Studio and Cultural Environments Focus Studio worked together to stimulate critical and reflexive thinking.

Both studios researched local agricultural history, regional farm architecture and site environmental issues. They also examined precedents of agricultural education centers for K-12 children and requirements for farm workers. The Design Implementation Studio produced a set of Design and Contract Documents for the farm. The Cultural Environments Studio continued to research the agricultural and ranching vernacular. Using the same site as the partner studio, this studio also went on to design a farm-based education center.

Using "Bloom's Cognitive Taxonomy of Learning in the Cognitive Domain," we proceeded in the following way:

Knowledge: students used information from previous courses in Ecology, Cultural Landscapes and Construction Implementation.

Comprehension: students demonstrated an understanding of the issues by engaging guest lecturers and transforming required readings and videos into essays and other forms of creative expression. They predicted the consequences of sustainable land use practices and the preservation of the agricultural vernacular.

Application: through programming, concept development and multiple approaches to site design, students expanded their design vocabulary and their vision for socially relevant community issues.

Analysis: students formulated new organizing structures for the site and received critiques from inside and outside the academy.

Synthesis: each student uniquely communicated his/her design, which reflected both research and analysis. Students also formulated new patterns of site organization and land use.

Evaluation: the faculty and the public evaluated each student project using the following criteria:

Section Four: Results and Conclusions

Thirty-four students presented Landscape Architecture designs for the community's critical response. City and County officials asked us to continue designing the site for approval. Two students and one faculty member currently work on the project. Plans will go before the City Council in April 2011.

By working with a broad spectrum of community members in a service-based project, students expanded their knowledge of food systems, school lunch programs, farm workers, the planning process and regional culture.

Go to the web page for lecturer Astrid Reeves.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2011

From Rose Gardens to Watersheds: A Survey of Ecological Designs by the Olmsted Brothers in Southern California

Writing from the Biltmore grounds during the last weeks of his own practice, Frederick Law Olmsted shared his vision with his son Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., advising that the future of their firm would be in developing a new and original landscape style that would contend with the problems of the arid West (Olmsted 1895; Beveridge 1995). While considerable research has been done on Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., this study adds to a little researched area: that of his sons' firm, the Olmsted Brothers, and their designs in Southern California.

This paper is part of on-going new scholarship looking to the built and un-built designs of the Olmsted Brothers landscape architecture, surveying landscapes at a variety of scales developed by the firm from 1900 - 1930. Their progressive ideas from 100 years ago provide modern models for landscape design that look to ecological process and senses of place as the foundation of design. The firm's design approach and regional expression is revealed through early recommendations for urban layout of Catalina Island, to their un-built design of Balboa Park, to urban and residential design in Los Angeles County (Streatfield 1994, O'Hara 2011). Scholarship focuses on the letters, drawings and photographs from the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site collection in Brookline, Massachusetts and the Library of Congress.

References:

Beveridge, C. (1995). Regionalism in Frederick Law Olmsted's Social Thought and Landscape Design Practice. T. O'Malley and M. Treib (Eds.), Symposium on Regional Garden Design in the United States. Washington, D.C. Dumbarton Oaks. 231.

Olmsted, F.L. (personal communication, August 1, 1895). Washington, D.C.: Frederick Law Olmsted Papers, Library of Congress.

O'Hara, C. (2011). The Panama-California Exposition, San Diego, 1915: The Olmsted Brothers' Ecological Approach to Developing a new Park Typology for the arid West. Journal for the Society of Architectural Historians, 70, (1).

Streatfield, D. (1994). California Gardens: Creating a New Eden. New York: Abbeville Press.

Keywords:

Olmsted Brothers, regionalism, California landscape history, ecological design.

Sites:

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor Christine Edstrom O'Hara.

Abstract: The Hawaii International Conference on Arts and Humanities 2011

Gathering Spaces: Lessons from Traditional Dutch Street Form in the Age of Peak Oil and Global Warming

Theorists believe that, currently, world populations are facing epochal changes heralded by Peak Oil Theory, in which the world supply of oil will peak and begin to decline, causing a dramatic shift in basic human activities in the absence of an alternate source of energy that matches the prolific nature of fossil fuels. Concurrently, worries about global warming serve as a reminder that we must reevaluate the dependence that we have developed on these technologies (Kunstler, 2005).

Even without these major concerns, it has become increasingly clear that sprawling patterns of development that dominated the latter part of the 20th century in the United States have alienated communities and degraded quality of life. Further, it is believed to be unlikely that major new energy sources will be developed to replace the pervasive utility of fossil fuels (Holmgren, 2009). While the dire warnings of the peak oil theorists are increasingly apocalyptic, others believe that we can avoid the wholesale collapse of human systems. To do this, we must learn to live smaller and more compactly, with basic needs required for daily living nearby (Newman et al, 2009). This paper asks: can features of older Dutch cities that promote walkability be transferred to communities in the United States?

There are reasons to examine European cities. Europeans have historically placed a heavy emphasis on compact urban form. Older European cities have also been able to preserve the forms and systems that are seen as exemplary models of sustainability such as alternate methods of transportation, compact form, and a mixture of uses. The Netherlands, in particular, place a high value on such practices (Beatley, 2000).

This study, while still ongoing, aims to research the viability of using traditional Dutch urban street form as a model for development by examining characteristics of streets and street pattern within the historic core of three Dutch cities that were settled prior to the industrial age. To insure consistency, the cities chosen for study are all water towns (cities that were developed on lakes or marshes) that all received their city charters between the years of 1245 and 1272. Historic maps were used to determine the study boundaries. Three types of street form were found to be predominant in the historic core: the canal street, the major road, and the minor road. The physical, cultural, and sociological aspects of these streetscapes as they relate to walkability are collected through measurements, mapping, observations, and photographic surveys. Characteristics of each street are examined, as well as the pattern of street form within the study area. This study is expected to result in recommendations that will be generated from the analysis of Dutch street form that could inform the planning of new and retrofitting of existing communities in the United States.

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor Beverly Bass.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2010

Service Learning in South Africa

All people are deserving of quality spaces that meet their physical needs, and contribute to their spiritual well being. The ability of artistry to feed the soul, and in turn our bodies (Bevlin, 1994) is often overlooked. Assuring a balance between artistic and scientific constructs is never more difficult than when our work is undertaken in third world, underprivileged communities. Frequently, the artistic concerns of a project in these impoverished environments take a secondary role to the physical and social issues of meeting basic sustenance needs of the inhabitants. Limited resources, both manufactured and financial, coupled with geographic and cultural disparities, are factors framing this tension. To be successful in these scenarios landscape architects have to overcome these challenges, and ensure the importance of artistic concerns.

Landscape architecture students enrolled at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo had the opportunity to participate in service learning internships engaged in work for underprivileged communities in South Africa. Projects were undertaken in rural public schools, and AIDS support organizations and orphanages. Student responsibilities included the design and construction of numerous projects at a variety of sites in rural and urban areas of South Africa. Students participated in community workshops, design charrettes, and provided the labor for construction of their designs. The internship challenged students to think outside the box, find aesthetic solutions, and come to understand their individual process along the way (Bevlin, 1994).

The internships are a case study with results aligning with current service learning theory. This paper provides an examination of how the learning acquired through service learning is different from that acquired in the traditional classroom setting (Rockquemore et al, 2000). It explores the impact of service learning on the development of professional values in the participants. It also examines the contribution of service learning to the formation of student values, which can affect the utilization, and integration of normative theory and research in the design process as they are value based (Lang, 1987).

The legacy of this internship is its ability to build bridges between ideas, people, and our global community. For students, their design process is refined and enriched. For the communities we worked in, they saw the concern of other people, and that cultural barriers can be broken. Finally, the internship makes a lasting difference in the hearts and minds of those involved, and how they view the world.

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor David J. Watts.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2010

Teaching Scenarios of New Normals: Grounding Innovative Landscape Architectural Design in Futures Studies

“To build a future means linking the knowledge of the past and present to choice and action.” Bertrand de Jouvenel, 1964

As design instructors, we continually drive our students for work that is new, inventive and, perhaps, ahead of its time. Yet how do we teach students to anticipate the future? We counsel them to research precedent studies, seeking a framework from the work of others, but how do we move their work beyond the contemporary of what they know today?

Futures studies is a systematic and rationally grounded exploration of change. It studies historical and contemporary changes, aggregating and analyzing the sources, patterns and causes of change in an attempt to understand it and influence it (Galtung & Inayatullah 1997, Ventura 1998, Isserman 1985, Staley 2007). Ideally, its methodology requires one to be both transdisciplinary as well as a systems thinker. Unlike interdisciplinary study, transdisciplinary scholars dissolve the boundaries between disciplines, tracking patterns of change across trends, events and issues (Groff and Smoker 2000, Cole 2001, Thompson Klein, Grossenbacher-Mansuy, and R. Häberli 2002).

This paper reports on the organization and results of a course developed to help freshman landscape architecture students build innovation in design and anticipate future scenarios through futures studies’ methodology. Topics were examined through the lens of historical and contemporary theory and models including:

This transdisciplinary study revealed patterns and connections, with history providing context and empirical data for each topic. Students were taught an envisioning framework and up-dated their ideas in a course wiki and discussion boards for all to edit and append throughout the quarter. To test how this knowledge was physically resolved in practice, students created models reflecting possible future scenarios of landscape architecture in 2025, addressed at any scale. These models required synthesizing the principles of physical and social sciences into grounded, rational innovations, exploring possible futures. The course taught a methodology and envisioning process for developing forward thinkers as designers.

Broader value of this paper highlights a heuristic method not typically used in undergraduate landscape architecture education. The specialty of applying futures studies to landscape architecture in both quantitative and qualitative data and ideas is a potentially underdeveloped area for new method and theory development.

References:

Cole, S. (2001). Dare to Dream: Bringing Futures to Planning. American Planning Association, Journal of the American Planning Association, 67, 372 – 383.

Galtung, J. & Inayatullah, S. (eds.). (1997). Macrohistories and macrohistorians. London: Praeger.

Groff, L. & Smoker, P. (2000). Global options program: Introduction to futures studies. Retrieved September 8, 2009, from http://www.csudh.edu/global_options/IntroFS.html.

Isserman, A. (1985). Dare to plan: An essay on the role of the future in planning practice and education. Town Planning Review, 56, 483 – 491.

Nicolescu B. Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.

Staley, D. (2007). History and Future: Using Historical Thinking to Imagine the Future. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Thompson Klein, J. & Grossenbacher-Mansuy, W. & Häberli, R. (2001). Transdisciplinarity : Joint Problem Solving among Science, Technology, and Society: An Effective Way for Managing Complexity. Basel; Boston: Birkhäuser.

Ventura, A. (1998). Futures Studies and Strategic Planning. Papers de Prospectiva, 35 – 40.

Keywords:

Foresight frameworks, futures studies, theory, pedagogical methodology

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor Christine Edstrom O'Hara.

Abstract: Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture (CELA) 2010

Integrated Learning Courses (ILCs): Underscoring Art and Science through Unique Course Design in an Undergraduate Landscape Architecture Program

Over the past four years, the Landscape Architecture Department at Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA, has implemented a revision to the existing BLA curriculum. Central to this effort is the Integrated Learning Course or ILC, a new course type that fosters on-demand learning, increases competence in the breadth of the profession and allows for undergraduates to investigate areas of interest or specialization in greater depth. The purpose of this paper is to explore the initial findings that have resulted from the implementation of ILCs into the curriculum. The following topics are discussed: how the ILC contributes to the studio environment; how the ILC provides flexibility in the curriculum; how the ILC enhances learning in core values and knowledge bases; ways that the ILC allows instructors to introduce research into undergraduate landscape architecture education; methods of instructional delivery; and how assessment of learning outcomes is carried out.

Go to the web page for Prof. Walter Bremer, ASLA; Assoc. Prof. Joseph Ragsdale; Asst. Profs. Beverly Bass, Christine Edstrom O'Hara, and David J. Watts.

Abstract: Journal for the Society of Architectural Historians

The Panama-California Exposition, San Diego, 1915: the Olmsted Brothers’ Ecological Approach to Developing a New Park Typology for the Arid West

During the last weeks of his practice, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. wrote that the future of his firm relied on developing an original landscape approach that would grapple with problems in the arid West. This paper adds new scholarship to his sons’ firm, the Olmsted Brothers, and how they met those goals in Southern California. Their un-built proposal for the 1915 San Diego Panama-California Exposition, now Balboa Park, provides a paradigm of how the firm conceived landscape layouts in direct response to the site, client and social context of the period, while applying design grounded in regional aesthetics and ecological function. As landscape architects, their proposal revealed “appropriateness” in design to the ecology of Southern California, respecting the natural landscape, while seeking a unique park typology for the region. Analyzing their proposed design, research relies primarily on the Olmsted Brothers’ original correspondence and previously unpublished drawings.

Go to the web page for Asst. Professor Christine Edstrom O'Hara.